Urban Green Space: Issues of Social and Spatial Justice
Spring may have sprung, but access to green space and its benefits is harder for some than others.
At last spring seems to be in the air in my part of the world, in the east of Scotland. We seem to have had months of leaden grey sky, but now the bulbs are out, the trees are in bud, and some early shrubs are in blossom. I am fortunate to live in a small town with plenty of green space, easy access to attractive riverside walks and wooded areas. Nature waking up really has lifted the mood.
But I am well aware that the green space which I have on my doorstep is not the experience for many urban dwellers. Whilst greening towns and cities is likely now to have a higher priority than it used to, there remain some difficult issues for urban planners in addressing equity and inclusion in the provision of urban green space (UGS). I want to highlight some of these here.
Urban green space is, usually, part of public infrastructure so how to provide more equitable ‘take-up’ among residents in urban areas becomes an important issue. Equitable access, availability and benefit from urban green space has several aspects each of which needs to be taken into account in developing effective strategies to minimize inequalities. There needs to be a concern for the extent of green space, the location of the available green space within towns and cities, the accessibility of available green space for all sections of the community, and the quality of the space for those who access it. Basically, the policy questions are: is there enough green space, where is it, how can people get there and what do they find when they do? It is about both quantity, quality, and accessibility if benefits from it are to be secured. And it should not be forgotten that the very provision of UGS may well have social and economic impacts in the wider urban space that it occupies. I will explore each of these aspects in turn.
Quantifying urban green space provision
A basic question is around how much urban green space is there within towns and cities and how much should there be relative to the size and distribution of the urban space in question? On the first, studies typically still rely on quantitative measurements, typically involving assessing indicators such as the green space area per resident or the percentage of green space coverage. More advanced GPS technologies are refining methods of obtaining data of this sort.
On the second question above, a variety of organizations and counties have put forward guidelines and recommendations for green space provision. For example, the World Health Organization (WHO) suggests a minimum of 9 square meters of green space per individual, while the European Environment Agency (EEA) recommends that urban residents should have access to a green space within a one-kilometer radius, or around 15 minutes’ walk from their homes. The Trust for Public Land in the United States employs an 800m walking distance from a park as a criterion for assessing park accessibility. The UK advises that residents should have green spaces within a 300m proximity to their residence.
These very broad-brush standards can serve as benchmarks to guide urban planers in their efforts to ensure that residents can benefit from green spaces, but they need some considerable refinement to take into account differences in urban settings and in the nature of green space itself. Thus overall city size and population and the density of urban development have implications for the requirements for UGS. Similarly one can identify different types and functions of green spaces at street level, at neighbourhood level, at city district level and at city peripheries, which might suggest a range of types of green space (or parklets) as part of a street-scape, to modest neighbourhood parks with some recreational facilities, major open spaces within cities such as Central Park in New York or Hyde Park in London and to urban forest parks often at city peripheries.
Experiencing green space
But just as UGS may have a variety of characteristics, so different social groups experience UGS in different ways. The choice and satisfaction of Urban Green Space (UGS) among users are influenced by a wide range of factors, including individual preferences and motivations, cultural background, accessibility, and the features of the green space itself.
These factors can lead to distinct patterns of use. One study categorized users into nature-oriented and social users, and found that older individuals tending to prefer nature-oriented uses of UGS while younger populations leant towards social uses and activities.
It is apparent that there is a range of ‘push’ and ‘pull’ factors that significantly influence the use of UGS, user experience and frequency of visits. The quality of green space is crucial for positive experiences. Well-maintained parks with facilities like playgrounds, benches, water features and walking trails are likely to encourage usability and enjoyment, whilst neglected green spaces act as a deterrence and can exacerbate feelings of exclusion. Push factors such as perceived distance and unpleasant surroundings may deter access to UGS whilst pull factors enhance usage and satisfaction. The balance between push and pull features is likely to be different for different groups within a community.
Cultural background can be relevant too in how particular communities use UGS. Groups may for example, use green spaces for organized sports, family and social gatherings, music or cultural festivals or religious events. Some groups will use green space as a convenient location for these sometimes large and noisy events which draw people from a wide area. Such uses are not readily compatible with other users who seek out UGS as a respite from urban noise and bustle in their daily lives. These differing expectations among users offer the potential for cultural clashes which can present a challenge for communities and local government to ensure UGS are functional for all.
So different social groups have different experiences of urban green space in various ways, influenced by factors such as accessibility, cultural practices, and socioeconomic status. Vulnerable groups, such as older adults, individuals with limited education, and those from areas of poor housing often encounter particular difficulties in accessing green spaces. These groups may find it harder to travel any distance to reach green spaces or may face other barriers such as limited and inadequate transportation options in seeking to do so. Ironically disadvantaged areas within urban areas are often further from green spaces than more favored communities.
Other groups may be particularly concerned with safety if they are to benefit from the use of green space. Access is not just about how far you live from a park. Feeling unsafe or unwelcome there can be just as significant. Young people, the elderly, women and girls, and people from ethnic minorities are more likely to experience verbal or physical harassment or worse in public places. Simply creating a new park, or allowing access to an existing natural area, does not mean everyone will feel able to use it. Without thoughtful design, for example by maintaining clear sight-lines and avoiding areas of deep shade, some will feel UGS is not a place to be.
These factors, working together or separately have salience for issues of social and spatial justice in accessing the benefits of UGS. The functions and benefits of urban green space are well established. In summary, these can be classified as social (they serve as communal areas that encourage social interaction, social cohesion, promote physical activity and enhance mental wellbeing), health (lower stress levels, improved physical and mental health), environmental (improved air quality, greater bio-diversity, and mitigation of urban heat islands) and economic (attraction of visitors and improved local economies).
There are research studies which show that being immersed in green space can actually help reduce health inequalities by benefiting less advantaged people more. Such findings underlines the importance of access to UGS.
Adjusting the spatial distribution and characteristics of green space
To truly address issues of equitable access to the benefits from urban green spaces presents local agencies with an enormous challenge. There needs to be a concerted effort to mitigate these disparities, to establish an environment where all social groups can equally enjoy the advantages these spaces offer. An inclusive and equitable approach to green space planning and policy development requires a holistic approach on the part of local agencies, based on a deeper understanding of the different barriers and inhibitions which deter some community groups and exclude others. This will involve finding new locations for green spaces to increase proximity for all city areas, designing green spaces which have attractive facilities and address issues of safety, accommodating as far as possible the different expectations of UGS amongst different community groups and ensuring a range of modes of transportation are available to allow those with different needs, and especially the most vulnerable groups to reach them.
People in dense urban areas are among the most isolated from nature. Investment in inner-city green space, as part of a concerted effort to meet the needs of all communities is vital. Giving local people a bigger role in these matters is an important step Legal provisions which give communities the chance to nominate valuable places close to home for designation as local green spaces or community gardens are helpful.. Measures such as community asset transfers can allow community groups or social enterprises to take ownership of green spaces from a public body. for development as community assets and invite community participation for relevant community benefit..
Such schemes can address some of the equalities issues outlined above, but local government agencies also need to plan strategically for long-term improvements to green spaces if they are to address the complex array of obstacles that hinder social and spatial justice in accessing the benefits it offers.